Handbook:Alpha/Installation/Disks/tr
Introduction to block devices
Block devices
Let's take a good look at disk-oriented aspects of Gentoo Linux and Linux in general, including block devices, partitions, and Linux filesystems. Once the ins and outs of disks are understood, partitions and filesystems can be established for installation.
To begin, let's look at block devices. SCSI and Serial ATA drives are both labeled under device handles such as: /dev/sda, /dev/sdb, /dev/sdc, etc. On more modern machines, PCI Express based NVMe solid state disks have device handles such as /dev/nvme0n1, /dev/nvme0n2, etc.
The following table will help readers determine where to find a certain type of block device on the system:
| Type of device | Default device handle | Editorial notes and considerations |
|---|---|---|
| SATA, SAS, SCSI, or USB flash | /dev/sda | Found on hardware from roughly 2007 until the present, this device handle is perhaps the most commonly used in Linux. These types of devices can be connected via the SATA bus, SCSI, USB bus as block storage. As example, the first partition on the first SATA device is called /dev/sda1. |
| NVM Express (NVMe) | /dev/nvme0n1 | The latest in solid state technology, NVMe drives are connected to the PCI Express bus and have the fastest transfer block speeds on the market. Systems from around 2014 and newer may have support for NVMe hardware. The first partition on the first NVMe device is called /dev/nvme0n1p1. |
| MMC, eMMC, and SD | /dev/mmcblk0 | embedded MMC devices, SD cards, and other types of memory cards can be useful for data storage. That said, many systems may not permit booting from these types of devices. It is suggested to not use these devices for active Linux installations; rather consider using them to transfer files, which is their design goal. Alternatively they could be useful for short-term backups. |
The block devices above represent an abstract interface to the disk. User programs can use these block devices to interact with the disk without worrying about whether the drives are SATA, SCSI, or something else. The program can simply address the storage on the disk as a bunch of contiguous, randomly-accessible 4096-byte (4K) blocks.
Slices
Although it is theoretically possible to use a full disk to house a Linux system, this is almost never done in practice. Instead, full disk block devices are split up in smaller, more manageable block devices. On Alpha systems, these are called slices.
In further sections, the installation instructions will use the example partitioning for the ARC/AlphaBIOS setup. Please adjust to personal preference!
Designing a partition scheme
How many partitions and how big?
The design of disk partition layout is highly dependent on the demands of the system and the file system(s) applied to the device. If there are lots of users, then it is advised to have /home on a separate partition which will increase security and make backups and other types of maintenance easier. If Gentoo is being installed to perform as a mail server, then /var should be a separate partition as all mails are stored inside the /var directory. Game servers may have a separate /opt partition since most gaming server software is installed therein. The reason for these recommendations is similar to the /home directory: security, backups, and maintenance.
In most situations on Gentoo, /usr and /var should be kept relatively large in size. /usr hosts the majority of applications available on the system and the Linux kernel sources (under /usr/src). By default, /var hosts the Gentoo ebuild repository (located at /var/db/repos/gentoo) which, depending on the file system, generally consumes around 650 MiB of disk space. This space estimate excludes the /var/cache/distfiles and /var/cache/binpkgs directories, which will gradually fill with source files and (optionally) binary packages respectively as they are added to the system.
How many partitions and how big very much depends on considering the trade-offs and choosing the best option for the circumstance. Separate partitions or volumes have the following advantages:
- Choose the best performing filesystem for each partition or volume.
- The entire system cannot run out of free space if one defunct tool is continuously writing files to a partition or volume.
- If necessary, file system checks are reduced in time, as multiple checks can be done in parallel (although this advantage is realized more with multiple disks than it is with multiple partitions).
- Security can be enhanced by mounting some partitions or volumes read-only,
nosuid(setuid bits are ignored),noexec(executable bits are ignored), etc.
However, multiple partitions have certain disadvantages as well:
- If not configured properly, the system might have lots of free space on one partition and little free space on another.
- A separate partition for /usr/ may require the administrator to boot with an initramfs to mount the partition before other boot scripts start. Since the generation and maintenance of an initramfs is beyond the scope of this handbook, we recommend that newcomers do not use a separate partition for /usr/.
- There is also a 15-partition limit for SCSI and SATA unless the disk uses GPT labels.
If you intend to uses Systemd, /usr/ must be available on boot, either as part of the root filesystem or mounted via an initramfs.
What about swap space?
There is no perfect value for swap space size. The purpose of the space is to provide disk storage to the kernel when internal memory (RAM) is under pressure. A swap space allows for the kernel to move memory pages that are not likely to be accessed soon to disk (swap or page-out), which will free memory in RAM for the current task. Of course, if the pages swapped to disk are suddenly needed, they will need to be put back in memory (page-in) which will take considerably longer than reading from RAM (as disks are very slow compared to internal memory).
When a system is not going to run memory intensive applications or has lots of RAM available, then it probably does not need much swap space. However do note in case of hibernation that swap space is used to store the entire contents of memory (likely on desktop and laptop systems rather than on server systems). If the system requires support for hibernation, then swap space larger than or equal to the amount of memory is necessary.
As a general rule, the swap space size is recommended to be twice the internal memory (RAM). For systems with multiple hard disks, it is wise to create one swap partition on each disk so that they can be utilized for parallel read/write operations. The faster a disk can swap, the faster the system will run when data in swap space must be accessed. When choosing between rotational and solid state disks, it is better for performance to put swap on the SSD. Also, swap files can be used as an alternative to swap partitions; this is mostly interesting for systems with very limited disk space.
Using fdisk to partition a disk (SRM only)
The following parts explain how to create the example slice layout for the SRM:
| Slice | Description |
|---|---|
| /dev/sda1 | Swap slice |
| /dev/sda2 | Root slice |
| /dev/sda3 | Full disk (required) |
Change the slice layout according to personal preference.
Identifying available disks
To figure out what disks are running in the system, use the following commands:
For IDE disks:
root #dmesg | grep 'drive$'For SCSI disks:
root #dmesg | grep 'scsi'The output will show what disks were detected and their respective /dev/ entry. In the following parts we assume that the disk is a SCSI disk on /dev/sda.
Now fire up fdisk:
root #fdisk /dev/sdaDeleting all slices
If the hard drive is completely blank, then first create a BSD disklabel.
Command (m for help):b/dev/sda contains no disklabel. Do you want to create a disklabel? (y/n) y A bunch of drive-specific info will show here 3 partitions: # start end size fstype [fsize bsize cpg] c: 1 5290* 5289* unused 0 0
We start with deleting all slices except the 'c'-slice (a requirement for using BSD disklabels). The following shows how to delete a slice (in the example we use 'a'). Repeat the process to delete all other slices (again, except the 'c'-slice).
Use p to view all existing slices. d is used to delete a slice.
BSD disklabel command (m for help):p8 partitions: # start end size fstype [fsize bsize cpg] a: 1 235* 234* 4.2BSD 1024 8192 16 b: 235* 469* 234* swap c: 1 5290* 5289* unused 0 0 d: 469* 2076* 1607* unused 0 0 e: 2076* 3683* 1607* unused 0 0 f: 3683* 5290* 1607* unused 0 0 g: 469* 1749* 1280 4.2BSD 1024 8192 16 h: 1749* 5290* 3541* unused 0 0
BSD disklabel command (m for help):dPartition (a-h): a
After repeating this process for all slices, a listing should show something similar to this:
BSD disklabel command (m for help):p3 partitions: # start end size fstype [fsize bsize cpg] c: 1 5290* 5289* unused 0 0
Creating the swap slice
On Alpha based systems there is no need for a separate boot slice. However, the first cylinder cannot be used as the aboot image will be placed there.
We will create a swap slice starting at the third cylinder, with a total size of 1 GB. Use n to create a new slice. After creating the slice, we will change its type to 1 (one), meaning swap.
BSD disklabel command (m for help):nPartition (a-p): a First cylinder (1-5290, default 1): 3 Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (3-5290, default 5290): +1024M
BSD disklabel command (m for help):tPartition (a-c): a Hex code (type L to list codes): 1
After these steps a layout similar to the following should be shown:
BSD disklabel command (m for help):p3 partitions: # start end size fstype [fsize bsize cpg] a: 3 1003 1001 swap c: 1 5290* 5289* unused 0 0
Creating the root slice
We will now create the root slice, starting from the first cylinder after the swap slice. Use the p command to view where the swap slice ends. In our example, this is at 1003, making the root slice start at 1004.
Another problem is that there is currently a bug in fdisk making it think the number of available cylinders is one above the real number of cylinders. In other words, when asked for the last cylinder, decrease the cylinder number (in this example: 5290) with one.
When the slice is created, we change the type to 8, for ext2.
BSD disklabel command (m for help):nPartition (a-p): b First cylinder (1-5290, default 1): 1004 Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (1004-5290, default 5290): 5289
BSD disklabel command (m for help):tPartition (a-c): b Hex code (type L to list codes): 8
The resulting slice layout should now be similar to this:
BSD disklabel command (m for help):p3 partitions: # start end size fstype [fsize bsize cpg] a: 3 1003 1001 swap b: 1004 5289 4286 ext2 c: 1 5290* 5289* unused 0 0
Save the slice layout and exit
Exit the fdisk application by typing w. This will also save the slice layout.
Command (m for help):wUsing fdisk to partition the disk (ARC/AlphaBIOS only)
The following parts explain how to create the example partition layout for ARC/AlphaBIOS:
| Partition | Description |
|---|---|
| /dev/sda1 | Boot partition |
| /dev/sda2 | Swap partition |
| /dev/sda3 | Root partition |
Change the partition layout according to personal preference.
Identifying the available disks
To figure out what disks are running, use the following commands:
For IDE disks:
root #dmesg | grep 'drive$'For SCSI disks:
root #dmesg | grep 'scsi'From this output it should be easy to see what disks were detected and their respective /dev/ entry. In the following parts we assume that the disk is a SCSI disk on /dev/sda.
Now fire up fdisk:
root #fdisk /dev/sdaDeleting all partitions
If the hard drive is completely blank, then first create a DOS disklabel.
Command (m for help):oBuilding a new DOS disklabel.
We start with deleting all partitions. The following shows how to delete a partition (in the example we use '1'). Repeat the process to delete all other partitions.
Use p to view all existing partitions. d is used to delete a partition.
command (m for help):pDisk /dev/sda: 9150 MB, 9150996480 bytes 64 heads, 32 sectors/track, 8727 cylinders Units = cylinders of 2048 * 512 = 1048576 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/sda1 1 478 489456 83 Linux /dev/sda2 479 8727 8446976 5 Extended /dev/sda5 479 1433 977904 83 Linux Swap /dev/sda6 1434 8727 7469040 83 Linux
command (m for help):dPartition number (1-6): 1
Creating the boot partition
On Alpha systems which use MILO to boot, we have to create a small vfat boot partition.
Command (m for help):nCommand action e extended p primary partition (1-4) p Partition number (1-4): 1 First cylinder (1-8727, default 1): 1 Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (1-8727, default 8727): +16M
Command (m for help):tSelected partition 1 Hex code (type L to list codes): 6 Changed system type of partition 1 to 6 (FAT16)
Creating the swap partition
We will create a swap partition with a total size of 1 GB. Use n to create a new partition.
Command (m for help):nCommand action e extended p primary partition (1-4) p Partition number (1-4): 2 First cylinder (17-8727, default 17): 17 Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (17-8727, default 8727): +1000M
Command (m for help):tPartition number (1-4): 2 Hex code (type L to list codes): 82 Changed system type of partition 2 to 82 (Linux swap)
After these steps a layout similar to the following is shown:
Command (m for help):pDisk /dev/sda: 9150 MB, 9150996480 bytes 64 heads, 32 sectors/track, 8727 cylinders Units = cylinders of 2048 * 512 = 1048576 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/sda1 1 16 16368 6 FAT16 /dev/sda2 17 971 977920 82 Linux swap
Creating the root partition
We will now create the root partition. Again, just use the n command.
Command (m for help):nCommand action e extended p primary partition (1-4) p Partition number (1-4): 3 First cylinder (972-8727, default 972): 972 Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (972-8727, default 8727): 8727
After these steps a layout similar to the following should be shown:
Command (m for help):pDisk /dev/sda: 9150 MB, 9150996480 bytes 64 heads, 32 sectors/track, 8727 cylinders Units = cylinders of 2048 * 512 = 1048576 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/sda1 1 16 16368 6 FAT16 /dev/sda2 17 971 977920 82 Linux swap /dev/sda3 972 8727 7942144 83 Linux
Save the partition layout and exit
Save the changes made in fdisk by typing w.
Command (m for help):wNow that the partitions are created, continue with Creating filesystems.
Creating file systems
Introduction
Now that the partitions have been created, it is time to place a filesystem on them. In the next section the various file systems that Linux supports are described. Readers that already know which filesystem to use can continue with Applying a filesystem to a partition. The others should read on to learn about the available filesystems...
Filesystems
Linux supports several dozen filesystems, although many of them are only wise to deploy for specific purposes. Only certain filesystems may be found found stable on the alpha architecture - it is advised to read up on the filesystems and their support state before selecting a more experimental one for important partitions. ext4 is the recommended all-purpose, all-platform filesystem. The below is a non-exaustive list
- btrfs
- A next generation filesystem that provides many advanced features such as snapshotting, self-healing through checksums, transparent compression, subvolumes, and integrated RAID. Kernels prior to 5.4.y are not guaranteed to be safe to use with btrfs in production because fixes for serious issues are only present in the more recent releases of the LTS kernel branches. Filesystem corruption issues are common on older kernel branches, with anything older than 4.4.y being especially unsafe and prone to corruption. Corruption is more likely on older kernels (than 5.4.y) when compression is enabled. RAID 5/6 and quota groups unsafe on all versions of btrfs. Furthermore, btrfs can counter-intuitively fail filesystem operations with ENOSPC when df reports free space due to internal fragmentation (free space pinned by DATA + SYSTEM chunks, but needed in METADATA chunks). Additionally, a single 4K reference to a 128M extent inside btrfs can cause free space to be present, but unavailable for allocations. This can also cause btrfs to return ENOSPC when free space is reported by df. Installing sys-fs/btrfsmaintenance and configuring the scripts to run periodically can help to reduce the possibility of ENOSPC issues by rebalancing btrfs, but it will not eliminate the risk of ENOSPC when free space is present. Some workloads will never hit ENOSPC while others will. If the risk of ENOSPC in production is unacceptable, you should use something else. If using btrfs, be certain to avoid configurations known to have issues. With the exception of ENOSPC, information on the issues present in btrfs in the latest kernel branches is available at the btrfs wiki status page.
- ext4
- Initially created as a fork of ext3, ext4 brings new features, performance improvements, and removal of size limits with moderate changes to the on-disk format. It can span volumes up to 1 EB and with maximum file size of 16TB. Instead of the classic ext2/3 bitmap block allocation, ext4 uses extents, which improve large file performance and reduce fragmentation. Ext4 also provides more sophisticated block allocation algorithms (delayed allocation and multiblock allocation) giving the filesystem driver more ways to optimize the layout of data on the disk. Ext4 is the recommended all-purpose all-platform filesystem.
- f2fs
- The Flash-Friendly File System was originally created by Samsung for the use with NAND flash memory. As of Q2, 2016, this filesystem is still considered immature, but it is a decent choice when installing Gentoo to microSD cards, USB drives, or other flash-based storage devices.
- JFS
- IBM's high-performance journaling filesystem. JFS is a light, fast, and reliable B+tree-based filesystem with good performance in various conditions.
- ReiserFS
- A B+tree-based journaled filesystem that has good overall performance, especially when dealing with many tiny files at the cost of more CPU cycles. ReiserFS version 3 is included in the mainline Linux kernel, but is not recommended to be used when initially installing a Gentoo system. Newer versions of the ReiserFS filesystem exist, however they require additional patching of the mainline kernel to be utilized.
- XFS
- A filesystem with metadata journaling which comes with a robust feature-set and is optimized for scalability. XFS seems to be less forgiving to various hardware problems, but has been continuously upgraded to include modern features.
- VFAT
- Also known as FAT32, is supported by Linux but does not support standard UNIX permission settings. It is mostly used for interoperability/interchange with other operating systems (Microsoft Windows or Apple's macOS) but is also a necessity for some system bootloader firmware (like UEFI). Users of UEFI systems will need an EFI System Partition formatted with VFAT in order to boot.
- NTFS
- This "New Technology" filesystem is the flagship filesystem of Microsoft Windows since Windows NT 3.1. Similarly to VFAT, it does not store UNIX permission settings or extended attributes necessary for BSD or Linux to function properly, therefore it should not be used as a filesystem for most cases. It should only be used for interoperability/interchange with Microsoft Windows systems (note the emphasis on only).
Applying a filesystem to a partition
To create a filesystem on a partition or volume, there are user space utilities available for each possible filesystem. Click the filesystem's name in the table below for additional information on each filesystem:
| Filesystem | Creation command | On minimal CD? | Package |
|---|---|---|---|
| btrfs | mkfs.btrfs | Yes | sys-fs/btrfs-progs |
| ext4 | mkfs.ext4 | Yes | sys-fs/e2fsprogs |
| f2fs | mkfs.f2fs | Yes | sys-fs/f2fs-tools |
| jfs | mkfs.jfs | Yes | sys-fs/jfsutils |
| reiserfs | mkfs.reiserfs | Yes | sys-fs/reiserfsprogs |
| xfs | mkfs.xfs | Yes | sys-fs/xfsprogs |
| vfat | mkfs.vfat | Yes | sys-fs/dosfstools |
| NTFS | mkfs.ntfs | Yes | sys-fs/ntfs3g |
For instance, to have the EFI system partition partition (/dev/sda1) as FAT32 and the root partition (/dev/sda3) as ext4 as used in the example partition structure, the following commands would be used:
root #mkfs.vfat -F 32 /dev/sda1root #mkfs.ext4 /dev/sda3When using ext4 on a small partition (less than 8 GiB), then the file system must be created with the proper options to reserve enough inodes. This can be done using one of the following commands, respectively:
root #mkfs.ext4 -T small /dev/<device>This will generally quadruple the number of inodes for a given file system as its "bytes-per-inode" reduces from one every 16kB to one every 4kB.
Now create the filesystems on the newly created partitions (or logical volumes).
Activating the swap partition
mkswap is the command that is used to initialize swap partitions:
root #mkswap /dev/sda2To activate the swap partition, use swapon:
root #swapon /dev/sda2Create and activate the swap with the commands mentioned above.
Mounting the root partition
Now that the partitions have been initialized and are housing a filesystem, it is time to mount those partitions. Use the mount command, but don't forget to create the necessary mount directories for every partition created. As an example we mount the root partition:
root #mount /dev/sda3 /mnt/gentooIf /tmp/ needs to reside on a separate partition, be sure to change its permissions after mounting:
root #chmod 1777 /mnt/gentoo/tmpLater in the instructions the proc filesystem (a virtual interface with the kernel) as well as other kernel pseudo-filesystems will be mounted. But first we install the Gentoo installation files.